The Lusíads is an epic. History supplies its heroes (the Portuguese) and its subject-matter (da Gama’s voyage to India in 1497–8). XIII

da Gama, imitating Aeneas’ account of the Trojan War to Queen Dido of Carthage, gives the Sultan of Malindi a long lesson in Portuguese history. XIII

Few of us share the extent and depth of Camões’s knowledge of the classics, and the pleasures of recognition, that agreeable Renaissance game of spotting how the poet has adapted a favourite passage from a classical author and refurbished it to serve a contemporary purpose, plays little part in our reading. XIII

The debates on Mount Olympus and in Neptune’s underwater palace allow him to emphasize the significance of da Gama’s achievement as a turning-point in human history, comparable to mankind’s legendary first voyage in pursuit of the Golden Fleece, or to the attempts by Daedalus and Icarus to fly. XVI

By raiding the Latin classics for references associating Bacchus with India and by expanding on Venus’ legendary love for islands, Camões was able to invent for himself the rudiments of a ‘tradition’ which Portuguese exploits could be represented as supplanting. Once embarked on this course, it was surprising how many classical tales could be adapted to his purpose—Phaethon’s chariot, the Argonauts and Daedalus, Memnon and Ethiopia, Venus and Cupid hiding as dolphins from the heat of the tropics, and a host of other borrowings from Virgil, Ovid, Horace, and Catullus. His style, or rather his variety of styles, reflects this, mixing Latin or Latinisms with Castilian Spanish and vernacular, sometimes vulgar, Portuguese, in a combination demonstrably his own. XVIII

Muslims are consistently presented as astuto, falso, enganoso, malicioso, pérfido, sábio, sagaz, torpe, and gentes infernais. XIX

The Lusíads, then, belongs with the Song of Roland, the epic of El Cid, and more directly, Dante’s The Divine Comedy, in claiming the spiritual, cultural, and intellectual initiative for Europe after a long period during which Islam has been in the ascendancy. XIX

C. M. Bowra, ‘Camões and the Epic of Portugal’, in From Virgil to Milton (London, 1945), 86–138. XXIV

88 As in the bloody bullring a lover, Proud that his radiant lady is watching, Doesn’t wait for the bull but confronts him, Posing, whistling, stamping, and halloing, But on the instant the terrible beast, Bellowing, blinded by sheer Rage, drops his horns in a lightning spurt Tossing, goring, and trampling him in the dirt, 89 So from our boats the fusillade began In murderous volleys. Lead balls dealt Death, the screams were inhuman, The shocked air boomed and hissed. Then the Muslims’ courage broke As their blood congealed with panic; Those hidden in ambush could be seen to fly, While those upon the strand were the first to die. 20

120 You were living safely, lovely Inês, Enjoying the sweet fruits of youth, In that soft deception of the soul That fortune never indulges long; 72

48 But a warrior’s heart, attuned to war, Is restless without an enemy to harm, 86

86 Having done everything practical To make ready for so long a voyage, We prepared our souls to meet death Which is always on a sailor’s horizon. To God on high who alone sustains The heavens with his loved presence, We asked His favour that He should endorse Our every enterprise and steer our course. 94

And I decided we should all embark Without the customary farewells, For, though they may be love’s proper course, They make the pain of separation worse. 95

95 —‘O pride of power! O futile lust For that vanity known as fame! That hollow conceit which puffs itself up And which popular cant calls honour! What punishment, what poetic justice, You exact on souls that pursue you! To what deaths, what miseries you condemn Your heroes! What pains you inflict on them! 96 ‘You wreck all peace of soul and body, You promote separation and adultery; Subtly, manifestly, you consume The wealth of kingdoms and empires! They call distinction, they call honour What deserves ridicule and contempt; They talk of glory and eternal fame, And men are driven frantic by a name! 96

Augustus, even when facing defeat, Wrote verses, graceful and to the point; 117

96 Caesar campaigned to conquer France, But war did not impede his learning, As pen in one hand, sword in the other, He equalled Cicero in eloquence. 117

97 It is hard to think of a great commander Whether Roman, Greek, or Barbarian, Who was not also skilled in learning 117

66 ‘To expend words on lurid descriptions Of frantic blows and terrible thrusts Is for poetasters whom we know Waste our time with their empty fables; 132

For the Nairs, it is a defilement To be touched by them, and so much so, If a Pariah by chance brushes by him It takes a thousand rites to purify him. 39 ‘In the same way, the ancient Jews Would not touch the Samaritan people. 146

By now, night was placing her daily Check on human weariness as, Luring tired limbs to sleep, she pressed On heavy eyes the blessings of sweet rest. 152

75 His questions began, but da Gama first Begged him to be seated, and sample The pleasures of eating and drinking Like a true-born Epicurean. Wine, which was first made by Noah,* Was poured for him from foaming jugs; But our foods he was compelled to reject As forbidden by the doctrines of his sect. 154

84 Have no qualms, nymphs, that I will squander Metaphors on that man who places Self interest above king and commonwealth, Against divine and human law. Nor will I praise the ambitious Courtier who seeks exalted office, Only to place himself above complaint Indulging his every vice without constraint. 85 Nor he who employs authority only To attain his foul ambitions, Nor he who, to remain popular Is more adaptable than Proteus; 155

This is Lusus,* from whose legendary fame Our kingdom Lusitania took its name. 157

For even then, the most martial peoples Learned from us the art of defeat. 158

See how in so just and holy a war He is content to die fighting; And so his soul, dispatched by Muslim arms, Triumphs in heaven with a victor’s palms. 160

47 Allied to him was a priest, a devoted Follower of the law of Mohammed, Whose hatred for the supreme Faith Was as new-found as it was extreme; In the likeness of that false prophet, Descended from the line of Ishmael, 166

Conquering the power of dead calms, Of sudden and awesome tempests, 171

For to deny commerce was to declare war. 175

2 Far off in the Red Sea, where Ptolemy* The Egyptian once founded Arsinoe —Naming it after his sister, though It was afterwards better known as Suez— Nearby is the port of the famous City of Mecca, which came to greatness Because its well of Zemzem was rumoured Wholly belonging, and holy to Mohammed. 3 Jidda is that port’s name, centre Of the Red Sea’s flourishing trade, 177

5 But the Ruler of Heaven and of mankind Who, in whatever He has ordained, Finds in advance some suitable means To accomplish what is determined, Made certain impulses work in the mind Of Monsayeed, who became His instrument, Alerting da Gama (for which advice The Moor deserves to enter Paradise). 178

28 He saw those whose duty was to show God’s love to the poor and charity to all, Fawning instead on power and wealth, In a parody of truth and justice; They call foul tyranny order, And false severity firmness, Passing laws in the interest of the king, While the rights of the people are decreasing. 182

31 In the immortal smithy they forge The piercing barbs for the arrows; For fuel, they use burning hearts, Still palpitating with ardour; The waters in which the iron is tempered Are the tears of unhappy lovers; The living flame, the undiminished fire Which burns without consuming, is desire. 183

56 Trees beyond number climbed to the sky With luscious, sweet-smelling fruits; The orange with its bright lanterns, The colour of Daphne’s hair; Citron-trees, brushing the ground With the weight of their yellow burden; And fragrant, moulded lemons which, when pressed, Are curved and nippled like a maiden’s breast. 188

God’s judgements are inscrutable; Pagans, unable to comprehend, Attribute to ill fortune or mischance What providence ordains and heaven grants. 204

archers—so God ever fights For His Church and for those who spread its rites. 205

80 ‘This is the great machine of the universe Ethereal and elemental, as made By the deepest and highest Wisdom, Who is without beginning and end. He who with his very essence Hedges this polished and perfect globe Is God; but who God is none comprehends For human wit cannot attain such ends. 213

81 ‘The first sphere which circles round The lesser orbs which it contains And which radiates with such brightness It dazzles mortal sight and mind, Is named the Empyrean, where pure souls Dwell and enjoy that infinite Good Whose essence is entirely self-defined; Nothing resembles it among mankind. 213

Its people believe, in their ignorance, That at death, even animals are consigned To be punished or rewarded, like mankind.’ 222

The useful discipline of war Is not learned, my lord, in the mind Through dreams or books or visionary lore, But watching, rehearsing, and waging war. 227